Towards a youth mental health paradigm: a perspective and roadmap.

Most mental disorders have a typical onset between 12 and 25 years of age, highlighting the importance of this period for the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of mental ill-health. This perspective addresses interactions between risk and protective factors and brain development as key pillars accounting for the emergence of psychopathology in youth. Moreover, we propose that novel approaches towards early diagnosis and interventions are required that reflect the evolution of emerging psychopathology, the importance of novel service models, and knowledge exchange between science and practitioners. Taken together, we propose a transformative early intervention paradigm for research and clinical care that could significantly enhance mental health in young people and initiate a shift towards the prevention of severe mental disorders.

Mapping the schizophrenia quality of life scale to EQ-5D, HUI3 and SF-6D utility scores in patients with schizophrenia.

OBJECTIVES: The current study aimed to map the disease-specific Schizophrenia Quality of Life Scale (SQLS) onto the three- and five-level EuroQol five-dimension (EQ-5D-3 L and EQ-5D-5 L), Health Utility Index Mark 3 (HUI3) and Short Form six-dimensional (SF-6D) preference-based instruments to inform future cost-utility analyses for treatment of patients with schizophrenia. METHODS: Data from 251 outpatients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders was included for analysis. Ordinary least square (OLS), Tobit and beta regression mixture models were employed to estimate the utility scores. Three regression models with a total of 66 specifications were determined by goodness of fit and predictive indices. Distribution of the original data to the distributions of the data generated using the preferred estimated models were then compared. RESULTS: EQ-5D-3 L and EQ-5D-5 L were best predicted by the OLS model, including SQLS domain scores, domain-squared scores, age, and gender as explanatory predictors. The models produced the best performance index and resembled most closely with the observed EQ-5D data. HUI3 and SF-6D were best predicted by the OLS and Tobit model respectively. CONCLUSION: The current study developed mapping models for converting SQLS scores into generic utility scores, which can be used for economic evaluation among patients with schizophrenia.

Lifetime Prevalence and Correlates of Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders in Singapore.

Introduction: The current study aimed to establish the lifetime prevalence of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders, its sociodemographic correlates and association with physical disorders using data from the Singapore Mental Health Study (SMHS 2016). Methods: A two-phase design comprising population-level screening of psychotic symptoms using the World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview version 3.0 psychosis screen followed by clinical reappraisal based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) criteria were used to establish the prevalence. Results: A total of 6,126 respondents completed the first phase of the study, giving a response rate of 69.5%. 5.2% (n = 326) of respondents endorsed at least one symptom in the psychosis screen. After the phase two clinical reappraisal interviews and adjusting for false-negative rate, the corrected prevalence of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders was 2.3% (95% CI: 2.3-2.3%). The odds of having DSM-IV schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders was significantly higher among those of Malay ethnicity (OR = 3.9, 95% CI 1.4-11.0), and those who were unemployed (OR = 4.3, 95% CI 1.2-15.9). 80.4% of those with a psychotic disorder had consulted a doctor or a mental health professional for their symptoms. Conclusions: Our results indicate that approximately 2.3% of Singapore's community-dwelling adult population had a lifetime diagnosis of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. While the treatment gap of the disorder was relatively small, the severe nature of the disorder emphasizes the need for continued outreach and early diagnosis and treatment.

Trajectories of symptom severity and functioning over a three-year period in a psychosis high-risk sample: A secondary analysis of the Neurapro trial.

The Ultra-High Risk (UHR) for psychosis group is known to be heterogeneous with diverse outcomes. This study aimed to: 1. Identify subclasses of UHR individuals based on trajectories of symptomatic and functional change over time, 2. Identify predictors of these trajectories. A sample of 304 UHR individuals participating in the Neurapro trial were followed over an average of 40 months. All participants received cognitive-behavioural case management (CBCM). Symptomatic and functional profiles were investigated using latent class growth analysis. Multinomial regression was employed to investigate predictors of classes. Identified trajectories showed mostly parallel slopes (i.e. improving symptoms/functioning over time), which were primarily distinct regarding the severity of symptomatology/level of functioning at baseline (i.e. the intercept). Higher symptomatic/lower functioning classes were predicted by higher substance use, older age, female gender, and lower cognitive functioning. No divergent trajectories were identified as all classes improved over time. This may reflect effective treatment through CBCM, natural illness course, or effective engagement with mental health services. Nonetheless, classes highest in symptoms/lowest in functioning still showed considerable impairment during follow-up, highlighting the need for targeted intervention in these subgroups. The study emphasizes the need for more clinical attention directed towards UHR patients being female or using substances.

Evaluating Singapore's CHAT Assessment Service by the World Mental Health Organisation (WHO) "Youth-Friendly" Health Services Framework.

Young people experience high rates of mental health issues. However, many do not seek professional help. In order to encourage help-seeking behavior among young people, it is important to ensure that services are youth-friendly. This study aims to evaluate the Community Health Assessment Team (CHAT)'s mental health assessment service model using the World Health Organization (WHO) youth-friendly health service framework of accessibility, acceptability, and appropriateness (AAA), and to ascertain the extent to which the CHAT service model is youth-friendly. Three hundred young people aged 16-30 years, who had gone through CHAT mental health assessments, completed a 27-item questionnaire. Majority rated the items in the questionnaire favorably. Our results suggest that majority of the young people who accessed CHAT mental health assessment service found it to be youth-friendly.

Motivations to quit smoking and challenges faced during cessation among individuals with first episode psychosis in Singapore.

AIMS: The prevalence of smoking has been noted to be higher among individuals with mental illness, particularly among those with schizophrenia and related psychosis than in the general population. The present paper sought to examine the motivations and challenges to quit smoking among first episode psychosis patients (N = 281) enrolled in the Early Psychosis Intervention Programme (EPIP) in Singapore. METHODS: Questionnaires were used to collect details on an individual's smoking status, cessation attempts, motivations to quit, and challenges to stop smoking. Using baseline data, multiple linear regressions were conducted to examine the socio-demographic correlates of motivations and challenges of smoking cessation behaviour. RESULTS: Of the study sample, 59.4% reported to have never smoked while 39.9% were currently smoking or had attempted smoking. Health reasons and cost were the most highly endorsed motivations to stop smoking; whereas cravings, stress, and boredom were highly endorsed as challenges to stop smoking. Socio-demographic factors such as age, educational level, and marital status were also found to be associated with the motivations to stop smoking and challenges faced during smoking cessation. CONCLUSIONS: The present study highlights the most highly endorsed motivations and challenges reported among individuals with first episode psychosis (FEP) in an Asian population. Given that the literature examining motivations and challenges to quit smoking has predominantly focused on the general population, results from the current study have implications for the formulation of smoking cessation programmes targeted at individuals with mental illness, particularly those with FEP.

N-Methyl-D-Aspartate(NMDA) Receptor and Voltage-Gated Potassium Channel (VGKC) Antibody-Associated Encephalitides Presenting as First Episode Acute Psychosis.

Aim: Acute psychosis is not an uncommon presenting feature in immune-mediated encephalitides. Most patients improve if properly diagnosed and treated expediently with immunotherapy. Our study aimed to describe the frequency, clinical spectrum, and long-term outcomes in patients presenting with acute psychosis who have anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor or anti-voltage-gated potassium channel (VGKC) encephalitis. Method: We recruited patients aged 16-50 years presenting with less than 1 month of psychotic and neurological symptoms including cognitive dysfunction, seizures, abnormal movements, and/or autonomic dysfunction. Results: Between September 2011 and October 2013, 60 patients with first episode acute psychosis were screened; 15 were recruited and included for analyses. Four (26.7%) patients were diagnosed with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis and 1 (6.7%) with anti-VGKC encephalitis. We found that the mean serum white blood cell (WBC) count (12.8 × 109/L ± 4.8 vs. 7.9 × 109/L ± 2.6; p = 0.05) and cerebrospinal fluid WBC count (106 cells/µl ± 101 vs. 8.5 cells/µl ± 18.9; p = 0.05) were higher in positive cases. Certain prodromal features such as fever, headache, confusion, facial dyskinesia, and hypersalivation were also more likely to be present in positive cases. Patients with autoimmune encephalitis also tended to be more unwell, with the majority requiring intensive care, had lower global assessment of functioning scores (30 ± 10 vs. 53.7 ± 21.2, p = 0.09), and were not well enough to complete standard psychiatric and cognitive assessments at presentation. Conclusion: Autoimmune encephalitis is not uncommon in patients with acute psychosis. Elevated WBC counts, certain prodromal features, and a more severe illness at presentation should prompt appropriate evaluation.

Treatment preferences and help-seeking behaviors for sleep problems among psychiatric outpatients.

OBJECTIVE: To understand treatment preferences and help-seeking behaviors among psychiatric patients for their sleep problems, and to examine determinants of problem recognition and help-seeking among patients with sleep difficulties. METHOD: A cross-sectional survey was conducted among psychiatric outpatients in Singapore (n=400). Participants completed questionnaires that assessed their sleep quality, daytime fatigue, help-seeking behavior, treatment preferences for sleep problems, and sociodemographic information. Multiple logistic regressions were used to identify correlates of patients who recognized their sleep difficulties and of those who had sought help. RESULTS: Mental health professionals were the most preferred choice (60.8%) for consultation on sleep problems. Among patients with poor sleep quality (n=275), 28.4% denied having any problems and 38.9% had not sought help. Patients with chronic physical comorbidity were less likely to recognize their sleep problems (OR=0.432, p-value=0.009), while those with psychiatric comorbidity were twice as likely to perceive the problems (OR=2.094, p-value=0.021) and to seek help (OR=1.957, p-value=0.022). Daytime fatigue was associated with higher odds of problem recognition (OR=1.106, p-value=0.001) and help-seeking (OR=1.064, p-value=0.016). CONCLUSION: A considerable number of patients did not perceive their poor sleep as an issue and had not sought help for it. General sleep hygiene education is needed for psychiatric patients.

Integrated (one-stop shop) youth health care: best available evidence and future directions.

Although mental health problems represent the largest burden of disease in young people, access to mental health care has been poor for this group. Integrated youth health care services have been proposed as an innovative solution. Integrated care joins up physical health, mental health and social care services, ideally in one location, so that a young person receives holistic care in a coordinated way. It can be implemented in a range of ways. A review of the available literature identified a range of studies reporting the results of evaluation research into integrated care services. The best available data indicate that many young people who may not otherwise have sought help are accessing these mental health services, and there are promising outcomes for most in terms of symptomatic and functional recovery. Where evaluated, young people report having benefited from and being highly satisfied with these services. Some young people, such as those with more severe presenting symptoms and those who received fewer treatment sessions, have failed to benefit, indicating a need for further integration with more specialist care. Efforts are underway to articulate the standards and core features to which integrated care services should adhere, as well as to further evaluate outcomes. This will guide the ongoing development of best practice models of service delivery.

Clozapine Use in First-Episode Psychosis: The Singapore Early Psychosis Intervention Programme (EPIP) Perspective.

OBJECTIVE: Early symptomatic response is pertinent in improving outcomes in first-episode psychosis. One of the ways in which this may be achieved is by reducing inappropriate delays in clozapine initiation. This study aimed to examine clozapine prescribing practices among clinicians by establishing the prevalence of clozapine use, identifying baseline clinical and demographic factors that were associated with clozapine use, examining outcomes in clozapine users versus nonusers, and identifying inappropriate antipsychotic prescription patterns prior to clozapine initiation. METHODS: A retrospective study including all consecutive patients who had presented to the Singapore Early Psychosis Intervention Programme (EPIP) from April 2001 to June 2012 was conducted. Clinical and demographic data were extracted from the EPIP database. Incident cases of clozapine users were identified, and additional treatment histories were obtained from medical records. In addition to descriptive statistics, multivariate analysis was performed to identify factors associated with clozapine initiation. RESULTS: Data from 1,603 patients were available for baseline analyses. Of these, 69 patients (4.3%) had been prescribed clozapine. Having a younger age at onset, lack of employment, a lower Global Assessment of Functioning disability score, and a higher Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale total score at baseline were factors associated with clozapine use. After adjustment was made for confounders, clozapine users were found to have attained similar rates of remission and recovery as patients who did not use clozapine. Clozapine initiation was delayed by a mean of 19.3 weeks (SD = 27.1; range, 0-117). Prior to commencing clozapine, 29.4% of patients had received antipsychotic treatments above maximum limits, whereas 75% of patients were prescribed ≥ 3 different antipsychotics (median = 3; range, 2-7). CONCLUSIONS: This study has confirmed that the prescribing of clozapine is low, delayed, and preceded by dosing of antipsychotic drugs above maximum limits. Identification of the factors found to be associated with clozapine use may encourage clinicians to consider clozapine sooner in relevant patients in hopes of achieving early symptomatic response.

Impact of depression on health related quality of life in patients with diabetes.

INTRODUCTION: Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a serious chronic illness that has a major impact on the quality of life of the individuals. Our aim was to examine the determinants of health-related quality of life (HRQOL) in patients with DM. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Adult outpatients attending a Diabetes Centre were recruited on consecutive basis between August 2006 and February 2007. Clinical data were collected from interviews with the subjects and from medical records. Assessment of depressive symptoms was done using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) and HRQOL using the Short Form 36 Health Survey (SF-36). A two-step regression analysis was conducted for identifying factors affecting patients' quality of life. RESULTS: Five hundred and thirty-seven patients participated in the study. The mean (SD) age of the participants was 54.7 (13.3) years and 315 (58.7%) were males. The prevalence of depressive symptoms was 31.1% (n = 167). After adjusting for other variables, the effects of depressive symptoms persisted for all the 8 domains of SF-36 (P <0.001 for all). The medical factors that were negatively associated with HRQOL were a diagnosis of Type 1 DM, duration of the illness of more than 10 years, HbA1c levels of ≥7%, and comorbidity of stroke and retinopathy. Being male and a regular exerciser had a positive effect on HRQOL. CONCLUSION: These findings highlight the importance of detecting and treating comorbid depression in DM.

Metabolic risk factors in drug-naive patients with first-episode psychosis.

OBJECTIVE: Metabolic risk factors, such as obesity, as well as abnormalities in glucose and lipid metabolism, have been shown to have an increased prevalence in patients with schizophrenia, especially in those treated with antipsychotic medication. However, studies looking at these abnormalities in drug-naive patients have been few in number and have yielded mixed results. The aim of our study was to look at the prevalence of some of the cardiovascular risk factors, such as obesity and lipid and glucose abnormalities, in drug-naive patients with first-episode psychosis compared to healthy controls matched for age, gender, and ethnicity. METHOD: One hundred sixty patients aged between 18 and 40 years who presented to the Early Psychosis Intervention Programme in Singapore with a diagnosis of first-episode psychosis according to the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders-Patient Edition were assessed for their body mass index (BMI) and plasma levels of fasting glucose and lipids. The results of this assessment were compared to similar data from 200 controls matched for age, gender, and ethnicity, collected as part of an annual workplace health screening. The study was conducted from June 2002 to March 2005. RESULTS: There were significant differences in the mean baseline weight, BMI, and plasma levels of total and LDL cholesterol; all of these values were significantly higher in the controls compared to patients (p < .005 for all). Controls were significantly more likely to have high BMI (>or= 23 kg/m(2)) and high LDL cholesterol level (> 3.4 mmol/L) as compared to patients (p < .005 and p = .01, respectively). However, patients compared to controls were significantly more likely to have diabetes (p = .007). CONCLUSION: The link between diabetes and psychotic illness previously reported in relatives of patients with schizophrenia and in medication-naive patients implies a possible genetic link between schizophrenia and abnormal glucose metabolism. However, the finding of low prevalence of obesity and dyslipidemia at the onset of illness suggests that the increased frequency of these abnormalities in patients is an effect of their antipsychotic medication.

Psychosis--a need for preemptive intervention?

With the advent of newer antipsychotic medications with fewer side-effects both clinicians and patients may be more willing to take early preemptive measures in treating psychotic disorders. We present a case report of use of pharmacotherapeutic intervention in an individual with either possible prodromal symptoms of schizophrenia or a subthreshold disorder. This case presented to us with the ethical dilemma inherent in treating a patient with subthreshold disorder. The options were either watchful waiting or preemptive treatment. In this case the patient was very distressed by his symptoms and had requested treatment with medications. Indeed, treatment has resulted in the remission of his symptoms and restored him to his previous level of functioning.

Substance abuse in schizophrenia. A Singapore perspective.

BACKGROUND: Most of the information on the prevalence and patterns of substance abuse in patients with schizophrenia has been from studies conducted in North America and Europe and data from Asian countries are conspicuously lacking. This study was undertaken with the aim to identify the prevalence and patterns of substance abuse among patients with first-episode schizophrenia in the city-state of Singapore. METHODS: All new patients with a diagnosis of first-episode schizophrenia or schizophreniform disorder who were seen in one calendar year in the only state mental institute in Singapore and its affiliated outpatient clinics were evaluated for a lifetime history of substance use. RESULTS: In a sample of 272 patients, 201 (73.6 %) were abstainers, 43 (15.8 %) had "mild" substance use and 28 (10.3 %) had "heavy" use patterns. Alcohol was the most frequently abused substance. The substance users were more likely to be males and were more likely to have a criminal record than abstainers. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, this is the first study that examines the co-morbidity of substance abuse in schizophrenia in an Asian population. Our findings once again highlight the fact that patients with schizophrenia are at a high risk for substance abuse.